List of Illustrations xiii
List of Color Plates xvi
List of Maps xvii
List of Boxed Texts xviii
List of Summaries of Dynastic History xx
Preface xxi
1 Introductory Concerns 1
1.1 What Is Ancient Egypt? 1
Chronological boundaries 1
Geographical boundaries 3
What is ancient Egyptian history? 4
Who are the ancient Egyptians? 5
1.2 Egypt’s Geography 7
The Nile River 7
The desert 8
Climate 10
Frontiers and links 10
1.3 The Makeup of Egyptian Historical Sources 10
Papyri and ostraca 11
Monumental inscriptions 13
Historical criticism 13
1.4 The Egyptians and Their Past 14
King lists 14
Egyptian concepts of kingship 18
1.5 The Chronology of Egyptian History 19
Modern subdivisions of Egyptian history 19
Absolute chronology 20
1.6 Prehistoric Developments 21
The beginning of agriculture 21
Naqada I and II periods 23
2 The Formation of the Egyptian State (ca. 3400–2686) 27
2.1 Sources 30
2.2 Royal Cemeteries and Cities 31
The Late Naqada culture 31
Dynasty 0 32
2.3 The First Kings 33
Images of war 33
The unification of Egypt 35
2.4 Ideological Foundations of the New State 36
Kings 36
Cemeteries 37
Festivals 37
Royal annals and year names 38
Gods and cults 39
Bureaucracy 40
2.5 The Invention of Writing 42
Precursors at Abydos 43
Hieroglyphic script 43
2.6 Foreign Relations 47
The Uruk culture of Babylonia 47
Late-fourth-millennium Nubia 48
Late-fourth-millennium Palestine 49
3 The Great Pyramid Builders (ca. 2686–2345) 52
3.1 Sources 53
3.2 The Evolution of the Mortuary Complex 55
Djoser’s step pyramid at Saqqara 56
Sneferu’s three pyramids 57
The Great Pyramids at Giza 58
Solar temples of the 5th dynasty 61
3.3 Administrating the Old Kingdom State 62
Neferirkara’s archive at Abusir 62
Officialdom 64
3.4 Ideological Debates? 66
Problems of royal succession 67
The gods Horus and Ra 69
3.5 Foreign Relations 71
Contacts with Nubia 71
Contacts with Asia 71
3.6 Later Traditions about the Old Kingdom 73
Djoser and Imhotep 73
Sneferu 74
The Great Pyramid builders 74
4 The End of the Old Kingdom and the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2345–2055) 78
4.1 Sources 79
4.2 The Rise of the Regions and Political Fragmentation 80
Nomes and nomarchs 80
Mortuary texts 81
Officials’ biographies 84
Pepy II 84
Why did the Old Kingdom dissolve? 86
4.3 Foreign Relations 88
Nubian independence 88
Beyond the Nile Valley 91
Mercenaries 91
4.4 Competition between Herakleopolis and Thebes 93
Herakleopolis 93
Thebes 93
4.5 Appraising the First Intermediate Period 94
Middle Kingdom literary refl ections 94
Historical critique 95
5 The Middle Kingdom (ca. 2055–1650) 97
5.1 Sources and Chronology 98
5.2 Kings and Regional Elites 100
Reunification and the 11th dynasty 100
The start of the 12th dynasty and the foundation of Itj-tawi 101
Provincial powers in the early Middle Kingdom 103
Royal interference in the provinces 104
Administrative centralization 106
Royal power in the 13th dynasty 107
5.3 Kings as Warriors 108
The annexation of Nubia 112
5.4 Egypt in the Wider World 114
The early Kingdom of Kush 114
The eastern desert and Sinai 115
Syria and Palestine 117
The world beyond 117
Rhetoric and practice in foreign relations 118
5.5 The Cult of Osiris 120
5.6 Middle Kingdom Literature and Its Impact on
Egyptian Culture 121
6 The Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos (ca. 1700–1550) 126
6.1 Sources and Chronology 127
6.2 Avaris: The Multiple Transformations of a Delta City 128
A history of Avaris 128
Cultural hybridity 129
Other immigrants 131
6.3 The Hyksos 131
The name Hyksos 131
Hyksos origins 132
Egyptian cultural influences 132
Political history 134
The 14th and 16th dynasties 135
Hyksos rule in Palestine? 135
6.4 Nubia and the Kingdom of Kush 136
The independence of Lower Nubia 136
The Kingdom of Kush 136
Kerma 137
The extent of the Kingdom of Kush 140
6.5 Thebes in the Middle 141
Royal tombs 141
Seqenenra Taa 142
Kamose’s war 143
6.6 The Hyksos in Later Perspective 144
Queen Hatshepsut 144
The gods Ra and Seth 145
Manetho and Josephus 147
7 The Birth of Empire: The Early 18th Dynasty (ca. 1550–1390) 151
7.1 Egypt in a New World Order 154
7.2 Sources and Chronology 155
7.3 Egypt at War 157
War and society in the New Kingdom 157
The “war of liberation” 159
The annexation of Nubia 161
Wars in western Asia 164
7.4 Egypt and the Outside World 167
7.5 Domestic Issues 169
Royal succession 169
Hatshepsut 171
Royal mortuary customs 175
New Kingdom bureaucracy 177
Building activity in the early 18th dynasty 180
8 The Amarna Revolution and the Late 18th Dynasty (ca. 1390–1295) 184
8.1 An International Age 186
The Club of the Great Powers 187
The administration of Syria and Palestine 189
The rise of the Hittites 191
A failed marriage alliance 191
8.2 Amenhotep III: The Sun King 192
Amenhotep III’s divinity and his building projects 193
The king’s family 196
The king’s court 197
8.3 From Amenhotep III to Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten 199
8.4 Akhenaten 200
Theban years (years 1 to 5) 200
Akhetaten (years 5 to 12) 202
Turmoil (years 12 to 17) 206
Akhenaten’s successors 206
8.5 Akhenaten’s Memory 209
9 The Ramessid Empire (ca. 1295–1203) 213
9.1 Domestic Policy: Restoration and Renewal 215
Sety I 215
Rameses II 216
9.2 International Relations: Reforming the Empire 219
Wars in Syria 219
Egyptian–Hittite peace 222
A new imperial structure 223
Foreigners in Egypt 225
9.3 Rameses’s Court 227
Officials 227
The royal family 230
9.4 A Community of Tomb Builders 233
10 The End of Empire (ca. 1213–1070) 240
10.1 Problems at Court 242
Sety II and Amenmessu 242
Saptah and Tausret 243
Sethnakht 244
10.2 Breakdown of Order 245
Tomb robberies 245
Workers’ strikes 247
10.3 The Decline of Royal Power 247
10.4 Pressures from Abroad 250
Libyans and Sea Peoples 250
The end of the international system 255
10.5 End of the New Kingdom 256
11 The Third Intermediate Period (ca. 1069–715) 260
11.1 Sources and Chronology 261
11.2 Twin Cities: Thebes and Tanis (the 21st dynasty, 1069–945) 264
Thebes 265
Tanis 267
The concordat 269
11.3 Libyan Rule (22nd to 24th dynasties, 945–715) 272
Centralization and diffusion of power 272
The God’s Wife of Amun 274
11.4 The End of the Third Intermediate Period 276
Nubian resurgence 276
Saite expansion 278
12 Egypt in the Age of Empires (ca. 715–332) 283
12.1 Sources and Chronology 284
12.2 The Eastern Mediterranean in the First Millennium 286
12.3 Egypt, Kush, and Assyria (ca. 715–656) 290
Military incidents 290
12.4 Egypt, Greeks, and Babylonians (656–525) 295
Greek–Egyptian relations 295
Military activity 299
12.5 Recollections of the Past under the Kings of Kush and Sais 300
12.6 Egypt and Persia (525–332) 304
Domination and resistance 305
Mixing cultures 310
13 Greek and Roman Egypt (332 BC–AD 395) 316
13.1 Sources and Chronology 317
13.2 Alexandria and Philae 319
Alexandria 319
Philae 322
13.3 Kings, Queens, and Emperors 325
The Ptolemies 325
Queen Cleopatra VII 327
Roman Egypt 328
13.4 Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians 329
Administration 329
Culture and religion 332
13.5 Economic Developments: Agriculture, Finance, and Trade 336
13.6 The African Hinterland 338
13.7 The Christianization of Egypt 341
Epilogue 344
Guide to Further Reading 346
Glossary 358
King List 362
Bibliography 368
Index 387
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